Gender diversity is neither a passing trend nor an invention of modern activism—it is an enduring feature of human societies across the world. Many cultures have embraced identities beyond the binary, embedding them into spiritual, social, and communal life. Long before contemporary Western discussions around gender emerged, these societies provided models of inclusivity and acceptance that challenge the notion of a strict male-female dichotomy. Exploring these histories reveals not only the depth of human diversity but also the ways in which gender intersects with culture, spirituality, and tradition.
Hijras in South Asia: An Ancient Third Gender
In South Asia, hijras are among the oldest recognized examples of gender variance, with references in texts like the Kama Sutra and centuries-old folklore. They are often seen as occupying a liminal space, neither entirely male nor female, but transcending these categories altogether. Traditionally, hijras have played significant roles as spiritual figures, offering blessings at weddings and births in exchange for gifts. These blessings are believed to carry divine energy, reflecting their cultural association with fertility and transformation.
However, the hijra community’s status shifted dramatically under British colonial rule in the 19th century, when laws criminalizing “carnal intercourse against the order of nature” led to their marginalization. Today, while countries like India and Pakistan legally recognize hijras as a third gender, social stigma and economic disenfranchisement remain pervasive. Nonetheless, hijras continue to play a visible role in South Asian culture, demonstrating resilience in the face of adversity.
Two-Spirit People in Indigenous North America
For many Indigenous communities across North America, gender has always been understood as a spectrum. Among the Navajo, for instance, nadleehi (feminine-male) and dilbaa (masculine-female) are considered essential parts of the cultural fabric, embodying a balance between masculine and feminine energies. This balance is seen as a source of strength and harmony within the community.
The modern term “Two-Spirit” was coined in 1990 at a gathering of Indigenous LGBTQ+ leaders in Winnipeg, Canada. It serves as a pan-Indigenous umbrella term that honours the diverse gender identities and roles historically present in Indigenous cultures. Beyond being descriptors of gender variance, Two-Spirit identities often carry spiritual and social significance, with individuals traditionally serving as healers, matchmakers, or keepers of oral histories. Colonial imposition of Christianity, however, led to the suppression of these roles, a legacy that Indigenous activists and leaders are working to reclaim and celebrate today.
Bissu of Indonesia: A Harmonious Blend
In Indonesia’s Bugis society, the concept of gender extends beyond the binary to encompass five distinct categories: oroané (male), makkunrai (female), calalai (female-to-male), calabai (male-to-female), and bissu. The bissu are considered a combination of all genders, existing as a spiritual conduit between the human and divine realms.
Historically, the bissu were central to Bugis spiritual practices, performing rituals that ensured harmony and prosperity for their communities. Their clothing and mannerisms intentionally blend elements of masculinity and femininity, reflecting their role as unifiers. While modernization and the rise of conservative religious movements have threatened their visibility, bissu continue to hold ceremonial importance in certain regions. Their existence challenges Western frameworks of gender, showcasing a system where identity is deeply intertwined with spirituality and cultural continuity.
Muxes of Zapotec Culture: Breaking Western Norms
In the Zapotec communities of Oaxaca, Mexico, muxes represent a longstanding tradition of gender diversity. Muxes are typically assigned male at birth but embrace feminine roles and identities, often living openly and fully integrated within their communities. Unlike many Western societies, where deviations from the gender binary have historically been stigmatized, Zapotec culture has long celebrated muxes as natural and valuable members of society.
Muxes are commonly found in roles such as caregiving, artisan crafts, and community leadership, reflecting the Zapotec belief in the importance of each individual’s contributions regardless of gender identity. Their acceptance is seen as an integral part of a broader cultural emphasis on social cohesion and mutual respect. While the rise of globalization has introduced Western gender norms to the region, muxes continue to inspire conversations about inclusion and authenticity.
Fa’afafine in Samoa: A Natural Part of Culture
In Samoa, fa’afafine (“in the manner of a woman”) have long been recognized as a natural part of the cultural landscape. Fa’afafine are individuals assigned male at birth who embody both masculine and feminine traits, often participating in roles traditionally associated with women, such as caregiving and domestic work. In contrast to Western stereotypes about gender variance, fa’afafine are widely respected and celebrated for their contributions to family and community life.
Samoan society’s acceptance of fa’afafine is rooted in its communal values, where individual roles are determined by their contributions rather than rigid categories. This cultural inclusivity offers a model for how societies can approach gender with openness and flexibility. However, as Western norms have increasingly influenced Samoa, some challenges have emerged, prompting fa’afafine activists to advocate for the preservation of their cultural identity and visibility.
Why It Matters
These examples reveal that the Western concept of gender as a binary is not a universal truth but a cultural construct. Societies around the world have long recognized, respected, and integrated gender diversity into their traditions. Understanding these histories is not just an academic exercise—it’s a crucial step in challenging harmful stereotypes and promoting inclusivity.
The experiences of hijras, Two-Spirit people, bissu, muxes, and fa’afafine offer valuable lessons about the resilience of human diversity. They remind us that gender is deeply personal yet profoundly social, shaped by culture, spirituality, and history. By learning from these rich traditions, we can foster a world where gender diversity is not only accepted but celebrated as an essential part of what it means to be human.
Gender diversity is as old as humanity itself. By learning from these rich cultural histories, we can break free from restrictive binaries and embrace a future where authenticity and inclusivity are the norm—not the exception. – TML
Sources
https://www.teenvogue.com/story/gender-variance-around-the-world
https://outrightinternational.org/gender-diversity
https://www.britannica.com/list/6-cultures-that-recognize-more-than-two-genders